The Canadian Arctic Expedition 1913-1918

When you discuss the discovery of the "New World" most people believe we knew everything about the continent of North America long before the 1900's. With stories of John Cabot, Jacques Cartier, and Samuel de Champlain, many people believe that once the battles between New France and British North America ended, the exploration of the continent largely ended. This however is not true. Many expeditions continued throughout the continent to help ups learn more about this mysterious land that would become Canada and the United States of America. One of these expeditions was the Canadian Arctic Expedition which ran from 1913 to 1918.

What would turn into one of the largest multi-country scientific expeditions was not originally sponsored by the Canadian government. The Expedition was supposed to be sponsored by the U.S. National Geographic Society and the American Museum of Natural History. When the Canadian government came to understand the scope of the expedition, they stepped forward to sponsor it, especially as Viljalmur Stefansson, who would be the leader of the expedition, was a Canadian citizen.

The expedition would be divided into two exploring parties, dubbed the Northern Party, which would be lead by Stefansson, and the Southern Party, which would be led by Dr. R.M Anderson.

The Northern Party was to explore for new land in the North and West of what was already mapped of the Canadian Arctic. The idea of  finding other land masses (similar to the Canadian Arctic islands) or a small continent was thought to be possible. While looking for new land, ice depth, sound recording, magnetic, and marine biology experiments were also planned. The Northern Party would cover thousands of kilometres of lands never before seen, not even by the Inuit peoples of Canada's north.

The Southern Party was scientific documentation of the geography of the souther Arctic islands, geology, resources, wildlife and indigenous population of the Mackenzie River delta. Of particular interest was the possibility of copper deposits, and an expansion of trade routes. The objectives of the Southern Party was added to the goals of the expedition when the Canadian government took over the funding of the project. Dr. R.M Anderson, an Arctic Zoologist was put in charge of this scientific research.

The Expedition gathered in Nome, Alaska in July of 1913...unaware of the political strife that was beginning to boil in Europe, almost none would be aware of the events of the First World War until the end of the expedition. Thirty men of various disciplines would set off to explore the Canadian Arctic, and in the end seventeen would not return home.

The expedition was not free from disaster. When the expedition set sail from Victoria BC on route to Alaska, most of the men, supplies and equipment was loaded onto the flagship, the Karluk under the command of Captain Robert Bartlett. Once in Nome, Alaska, the Karluk was joined by two schooner ships, the Alaska, and Mary Sachs were purchased to handle the increased number of men and supplies with the expanding goals of the expedition. The ice  conditions north of Alaska were extremely severe during the fall of 1913, and the Karluk got trapped in the ice. Stefansson, with five of his crew left the ship to hunt for caribou. The two schooners, were able to navigate the shallower water closer to the coast line and made it to Collinson Point, Alaska before they were forced to winter.

The Karluk was frozen in the ice and drifted east, then west towards Russia, where it was eventually crushed in the ice and sank just off the coast of Wrangel Island, off the Siberian Coast in January 1914. Most of the crew made it to the island. 8 died while making the crossing on the ice, and 4 more were killed later while attempting to cross the ice when separated from the crew. Bartlett and an Alaskan Inupiat hunter crossed the ice to Siberia and travelled back to Alaska to arrange a rescue for his crew on Wrangel Island. Bartlett would meet up with the USS Bear and would rescue his crew in the fall of 1914, where three more had died from the elements and limited resources. The loss of the Karluk forced the expedition to purchase additional ships, supplies and hire more help at an additional added cost, and put the expedition behind schedule. The two new schooners were the North Star  and Polar Bear. This fleet of ships became know as the Expedition Navy, or the Canadian Arctic Expedition Navy.

The Mary Sachs would also not survive the expedition, and she gave her name to the community of Sachs Harbour, the engines can actually still be seen. The North Star was given as payment for services to Natkusiak, a hunter and key member of the expedition for his help during several years of service. The Alaska returned home to Nome, Alaska in 1916 loaded with people, specimens, and artefacts. The Polar Bear continued on as the expeditions main ship until 1918, and ended her career in Siberia.

According to the Museum of Civilization, "The Members of the Canadian Arctic Expedition (CAE) travelled in and around vast areas of the western Arctic that are now protected as national or territorial parks, or as bird sanctuaries or wildlife areas. Among the areas traversed or sudied by CAE members are: Herschel Island Territorial Park, Ivvavik National Park, Aulavik National Park, Kendall Island Bird Sanctuary, Tuktut Nogait National Park, Kitigaryuit National Historic Site, Bloody Falls National Historic Site, and the Coppermine River, a proposed Heritage River. Many expedition photographs of these places are available in the CAE photo collections and many specimen and artifacts brought back by the CAE come from these now-protected areas." http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/hist/cae/indexe.shtml

The expedition which lasted went from 1913-1918, had a huge impact on the northern communities and in knowledge for the scientific community. Four islands were discovered in 1915 and 1916 by the Northern Party, and were the last major island discoveries in the Canadian Arctic, and the only islands discovered by a Canadian expedition. (Several other islands would be discovered by the Air following the Second World War). The expedition also confirmed that Croker Land (sighted by Robert Peary in 1906) and Keenan Land (said to have been discovered by John Keenan in the 1870s) did not exist. 

The Sourther Party returned with thousands of specimens of animals, plants, fossils, geological surveys, artefacts from Copper Inuit and other northern cultures. They also returned with near 4,000 photographs, 9,000 feet of film,covering all aspects of the expedition.

More than fourteen volumes of scientific results were published as well as many scientific papers. Several books have been published on the Karluk disaster, but the vast majority of the story about the Canadian Arctic Expedition remains unknown in diaries. Only one has been published in full, Diamond Jenness' Arctic Odyssey. 

Other titles about the expedition include:
The Friendly Arctic by Stefansson
With Stefansson in the Arctic by Noice
Adventures in the Arctic by Montgomery, re-telling of Lorne Knight's original work.
The People of the Twilight by Jenness
Dawn in Arctic Alaska. 

The issue of Arctic Sovereignty, which has risen in recent years. was a huge concern during this period as well. Many of the Arctic island were transferred from Britain to Canada in 1881, but were mapped by a Norwegian, and numerous American explores had travelled on the Canadian islands where no Canadians had ever been or laid claim. This expedition allowed the Canadian government to add the islands to the maps, and lay official claim to then, as they were within the international water boundaries of the already established Canadian Arctic Islands.

Remembering History - The Canadian Arctic Expedition 1913-18

Oak Ridge, Tennessee - The Secret Atomic City

For my wife's birthday, I purchased her "The Girls of Atomic City" The Untold Story of The Women Who Helped Win World War II" by Denise Kiernan. The book explores the often untold history of Women during the Second World War. Many people in seminar's across University Campuses have studied Women's contributions to the War, building bombs, aircraft, tanks, trucks and many other things that cannot be listed as it would take more than the space available on this free blog!  

Available from Amazon.com

What I was surprised to learn, was that the United States built an entirely secrete city during the war to help build the Atomic Bomb. Everyone has heard about Los Alamos labratory, and many believe the bomb was built, developed, and tested at this location. I was even under this impression. "The Girls of Atomic City" tells the story of the thousands of women, who were moved to the newly built secrete military city of Oak Ridge, Tennessee to help build the Atomic Bomb, all while they did not fully know what they were developing. Each facility was responsible for a different piece of the weapon, and no one ever saw a finished product leave the facility, so no one knew what was being built. 

The city itself was established in 1942 as a production site for the Manhattan Project - conducted by the United States, United Kingdom, and Canadian governments contributions. The area was selected because its relatively low population made the acquisition of the land relatively affordable, as almost all of the local residence were forced to evacuate their homes and move elsewhere. Oak Ridge became a military town, checkpoints to enter and exit the city, surrounded by fencing. The low population also helped keep the town a secrete. The population in 1942 was a mere 3,000 -  but this would boom to more than 75,000 by 1945 and the end of the War. The largest facility built in Oak Ridge, the K-25 Uranium separation facility covered more than 44 acres. For a number of years, this was the largest building in the world. Aside from K-25, S-50 and Y-12 plants were built to separate the fissile isotope uranium-235 from its natural state. The United States also built the X-10 plant which is currently the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, was originally established as a pilot project for the production of plutonium for a Graphite Reactor. 

With the quick influx of people to this secrete town, prefabricated housing, apartments and dorms were established with a basic community layout, and dirt roads, as there was no time to pave the roadways, as the city was growing faster than it could accommodate. 

Not only was the city a secret, what people were working on was a secret. No one working in the various plants (despite the Army and Government officials overseeing the community) knew what they were working on. People were to swear that they would not talk about what their were doing to their neighbours and colleagues living with them in Oak Ridge. 

The vast majority of the population of Oak Ridge were women. They were completing much of the scientific exploration and projects that led to the development and success of the Trinity Test in 1945, and the weapons used against Japan in August of 1945.  

When news of the first atomic bombing of Hiroshima Japan on August 6th 1945 made its way back to the United States, and President Harry S. Truman thanked all those who worked diligently at the Oak Ridge facility, was it revealed to the residents of Oak Ridge what they had been working on developing. 

Even today Oak Ridge is still a national nuclear research and weapons facility. Here is what happened to the facilities operated at Oak Ridge: 

K-25 where uranium was enriched until 1986 is in the process of being decommissioned and decontaminated. 

Y-12 which was used for the separation of Uranium is sill in use for nuclear weapons processing and materials storage.

X-10 where the test Graphite Reactor is located, is now the site of Oak Ridge National Laboratory.

S-50 liquid thermal diffusion plant was demolished at the end of the war.  

As of the 2010 census, the population was at 29,230. 

Now we can all be aware of the contributions of Oak Ridge Tennessee for ending the Second World War, that Los Alamos was not alone in its efforts during the Manhattan Project.  

Remembering History - Oak Ridge - The Secret Atomic City 

The Dieppe Raid of 1942 - 70 years later - The Truth is Known, but is it being taught?

Almost a year ago, Montreal historian David O'Keefe announced that he had uncovered the true meaning behind the 1942 raid on the city of Dieppe. For nearly 70 years many Canadian veterans felt that they had fought on the beaches of Dieppe for nothing, that their comrades died for nothing. For 70 years, historians have argued that the Dieppe Raid was a test run for D-Day in 1944, that it was merely to test Hitler's Atlantic Wall defences, that it was to prove to Stalin a Second Front was impossible.

Each of these reasons has been discussed in high school history classrooms, in seminars on university campuses since the end of the Second World War. I am sure more students than I can count have written essay's arguing for an against each of the reasons given by historians. For years the true reasons behind the raid were kept from the world as the file was still considered "Top Secret."

David O'Keefe uncovered the true reason for Dieppe was to steal German Naval intelligence from the Naval HQ which was stationed in Dieppe, as well as steal an Enigma machine and operation manual to continue to decode the German's messages. Sir Ian Fleming (most famous for his 007 James Bond Novels) was involved in the planning an was even in the English Channel that night in hopes of success.

To learn more about O'Keefe's discovery please read Random Houses' post.

What I am interested to know, is how many Teachers took into account this recent discovery when teaching the minds of tomorrow about the 1942 Dieppe Raid this past 2012-13 School year? Or did History teachers continue with the lessons they have been using their entire career, keeping the Dieppe myth alive? It is something to think about...history is continually changing, and we as teachers, who have agreed to a life continued learning. I am extremely passionate about history, and have met my fair share of history teachers who don't actually enjoy or engage with history. It is I believe these teachers that give history the impression of being boring...causing students not to enjoy or look forward to taking history.

Remembering History - The 1942 Dieppe Raid, the Truth behind the raid - make sure to teach it!

Operation Greenhouse - Nuclear Test Series 1951

Much of the post war period that was the Cold War, was spent attempting to build a bigger, more powerful, and more accessible nuclear/thermonuclear weapon to deter the enemy from attacking. The Cold War saw the establishment of Churchill's famous "Iron Curtain" dividing the world between the Eastern Bloc and the Western Bloc.

In 1951 the United States conducted its 5th Nuclear test series, code named Operation Greenhouse. As with any scientific test, the United States began experimenting with the concept of thermonuclear weapons, more commonly known as Hydrogen Bombs. This series of tests took place at the newly established Pacific Proving Ground. The test series would encompass four detonations, each mounted on steel towers to simulate areal detonations.

The four tests of Greenhouse represented a new aggressive design of nuclear weapons, looking to take the ultimate weapon one step further. Traditional nuclear weapons were very large in size, weight and required a high amount of fissile material. The ideas behind Greenhouse were to reduce each of the above traditional requirements to build more powerful weapons with less material, making them more operational.

A year and a half before Operation Greenhouse, on August 29 1949, the Soviet Union detonated RDS-1, nicknamed "Joe-1." The test yielded 22 Kilotons, and surprised the world. The United States only detected radioactive fission products days after the blast, and traced them back to the USSR. On September 23rd 1949, President Harry Truman announced to the world that the Soviet Union had successfully detonated an atomic bomb. This statement is considered by many to be the official beginning of the Cold War, as both the United States and the Soviet Union began working on the first Hydrogen Bomb.

The first two tests of Greenhouse, were of traditional nuclear weapons with minor adjustments to the firing mechanism. "Dog" tested on April 8th 1951 yielded 81 kilotons, and "Easy" tested on April 21st 1951 yielded 47 kilotons. It was the last two tests of this series that took major steps forward to designing a Hydrogen Bomb.

"George" was tested on the 9th of May 1951 and was the first recorded thermonuclear experiment conducted by the United States.  "George" was actually considered a thermonuclear burn, due to the addition of a small amount of heavy isotopes of liquid hydrogen (deuterium and tritium) that were injected into the core of the bomb. "George" acted more liked a boosted nuclear bomb than a Hydrogen bomb. The findings from "George" validated the theories that brought about the ideas of a thermonuclear weapon, and would be used when designing "Ivy Mike." "George" yielded 225 kilotons.

"George" Test shot mushroom cloud. nuclearweaponarchive.org

The final test of Operation Greenhouse was "Item." Like "George," "Item" was a test of a boosted fission weapon. "Item" was injected with deuterium-tritium gas into the uranium core.The heat of the gas produced a thermonuclear fusion reaction, but not enough to be fully considered a fusion bomb. The planning behind "George" and "Item" was from the great mind of Dr. Edward Teller in 1947. Teller has designed the idea of a booster to create a more powerful reaction, causing a larger detonation. While much smaller than "George", "Item" yielded 45.5 kilotons, but proved effective in pumping the booster gas into the weapon before detonation. The test was primarily a test of the nuclear principles involved and to gain valuable research data. It was never considered a design for weaponizing a device.

The nuclear discoveries that Operation Greenhouse provided helped the United States design and successfully test "Ivy Mike" in November 1952.  Thermonuclear Weapons would change the face of the Cold War, as would bigger and larger nuclear bombs.

Remembering History - Operation Greenhouse

History Education Review and the Korean War

On May 20th I posted about the current Federal Review of History Education in Canada, and breaking the Peacekeeping Myth that is taught in the vast majority of our Grade 10 History classrooms (in Ontario, anyway), today I would like to highlight the upcoming 63rd Anniversary of the Korean War, a subject that almost always barely gets mentioned in a history classroom in high school, perhaps leading it to be called the "Forgotten War" and no war should ever be forgotten.

The Ontario ministry of education, grade 10 history curriculum calls for teachers to teach students about the important events between 1914 and the Present. The vast majority of the course covers the Second World War, and touches on the 1920s, 1930s and an overview of the Cold War, highlighting the Canadian built super aircraft, the Avro Arrow, and its demise, and the Avro myth in Canada today. The Korean War is a side note in most classrooms. Teachers often overlook it entirely or take a fraction of a class to mention that the war happened, and it is not a myth.


On June 25th 1950, the North Korean forces surprised the world when they invaded South Korea, and immediately the United Nations drafted resolution 82, which called for an end of the war, and the Korean peninsula to return to its divided state at the 38th parallel.

By August 15th the 2nd PPCLI was created and set sail for Korea, arriving in December and taking part in hostilities in February of 1951. By early spring 1951, more than 8,500 Canadian troops were supporting the United Nations with 600,000 South Korean, 326,000 American, 14,000 British, 5,000 Turkish, and hundreds of other troops from 17 nations to fight 1.3 Million Chinese troops, 270,000 North Korean Troops, and 26,000 Soviet troops (mainly in operational support roles, and not involved in direct combat).

The conflict, which still causes international issues today, 'ended' in 1953 with a ceasefire, after close to 800,000 dead and a million wounded. A total of  516 Canadians died, 1,042 were wounded, 1 is still listed as MIA, and 33 were taken as POWs.

It is hard to believe that despite the fact that the Korean War is Canada's third deadliest conflict, and perhaps one of the most important, in curbing the spread of Communism in the Far East, is skipped over in our history classes. As we get further from the end of the Second World War, our veterans dwindle in numbers. I am extremely worried that when the only veterans left are from the Korean War, our students will not know why their fight was so important, or even know it existed. This is just another reason why a review on the History curriculum is important.

I welcome any comments/concerns about my proposal/opinion about history education.

Remembering History - History Education Review and the Korean War