Battle of the St.Lawrence 1942

HMCS Arrowhead (DND - 1940) Convoy escort lead through the St. Lawrence

Despite what common knowledge may say, the Second World War reached the shores of North America, specifically speaking in Canada and up the St. Lawrence river throughout 1942. Despite the fact that the facts will tell you, nearly two dozen ships were sunk, and more than 340 sailors killed, with no single German U-Boat being sunk, it was still a tactical victory for the Royal Canadian Navy.

War in the St. Lawrence by Roger Sarty (2012)

If the RCN needed to admit defeat in the St. Lawrence, it would have meant the end of its convoy runs to Britain and the Allies in Europe and a massive blow to moral and an embarrassment for Canada. Beginning in 1942, The Canadian government took a great number of heated questions and concerns from the public over its inability to keep Canadian waters safe from the continued threats of Nazi German U-Boats in the Gulf of the St. Laurence.  Nazi Germany understood the strategic importance of the St. Lawrence. U-Boats could operate a minimal depths and attack convoys in hopes of breaking the Allied supply chain and lead to victory in Europe. The only issue was, German U-Boat commanders feared entering the St. Lawrence despite the fact that no U-Boat had even been successfully attacked or sunk in its waters.


Despite initial success in attacking the Canadian convoys in the St. Lawrence, successful German U-Boat attacks fell to 1.2% by the end of 1944 when the German's gave up on cutting off the St. Lawrence. The most successful U-Boat run was in September of 1942, when the German U-Boats U-165 commanded by Hoffman (or Hoffmann) and U-517 commanded by Hartwig. Out of the 18 ships and 2 warships sunk in the St. Lawrence between May and September 1942, 2/3 were claimed by Hoffman and Hartwigg. It was this success that led Germany to order more U-Boats into the St. Lawrence, and suggested entering the river, not just the gulf.

In late September 1942 U-69 commanded by Ulrich Graf arrived at the Cabot Strait, however his U-Boat was operating the new Metox radar warning system, which did not identify a distance to detected targets, just a warning that targets were in the area. The Metox system was so advanced, that it also detected the Royal Canadian Air Force which began patrolling the St. Lawrence that fall, in an attempt to curb the U-Boat attacks. Graf worried by the high number of targets his radar was detecting abandoned the Gulf in early October, leaving U-106 commanded by Hermann Rasch on its own in the gulf. 

In its first few days, U-106 would sink the merchant steamer Waterton, and quickly became over run with warnings from its Metox radar, and almost immediately abandoned the St. Lawrence gulf and went back out to sea. The U-43 which followed Rasch into the St. Lawrence a week later. Despite is constant rader warnings, U-43 decided to hold out, in hopes of glory. Glory would never come, it failed in attacking convoy SQ-43 off the coast of the Gaspe on October 21, which resulted in a massive counter attack by the RCN and the RCA. The U-43 narrowly escaped the massive depth charge attack from the HMCS Gananoque, having most of its lights destroyed from the explosions. U-43 abandoned the St. Lawrence early the next month.

In a final attempt to close the St. Lawrence, Germany ordered three more U-Boats to enter the Gulf and head up river. U-183, U-518, and U-522. U-183 knew of the effectiveness of the RCN and RCA patrols and refused to enter the gulf altogether, while U-522 off the coast of Newfoundland intercepted convoy SC-107, and reported it to U-520, U-521, U-402, U-89, U-84, and U-132, which were in the area. It led to one of the most decisive naval battles in RCN history and the most interrupted convoy of the war. Of the 39 ships that were part of the convoy,  14 were sunk. 

On November 9, U-518 braved the gulf despite the warnings from its radar and landed German Spy Walter Aldred Waldemar von Janowski on the shores of Quebec. After paying for a hotel room in out dated money, police were alerted to his presence and he was arrested.

Following the unsuccessful deployment of its spy, U-518 left the St. Laurence  near the end of November, and it was clear that a tactical Canadian victory was at hand. German U-Boat commanders feared the water of the St. Lawrence despite the fact that no U-Boat was lost in its waters. It was a victory that gained one prisoner, and no confirmed kills for the Allies, but it was a decisive victory which allowed the convoys to continue to reach Europe.

To learn more about the Battle, please read

The Legion Magazine (Sept/Oct 2012) "Hidden Victory in the St. Lawrence"
War in the St. Laurence (2012) by Roger Sarty

Remembering History - The Battle of the St. Lawrence - 1942

The Polish-Soviet War 1919 - 1921

Despite having left left the Great War in 1917 so it could complete it's Soviet Revolution, Soviet Russia was back at war within two years against its neighbour, Poland, a neighbour that it has been to war with on numerous occasions.

With the support of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, Soviet Russia went to war against the Second Polish Republic and the Ukrainian Peoples Republic over territorial controls of what is modern Ukraine and parts of Belarus.

When the Great War ended in 1918, the Treaty of Versailles only vaguely defined the international borders between Poland and Bolshevik Russia.

Jozef Pilsudki

Poland's Chief of State, Jozef Pilsudki believed that 1919 was the perfect time for Poland to expand it's borders as far East as possible, then lead a Polish Intermarum federation against the Russian Imperialists.

Yavhen Petrushevych

Vladimir Lenin, saw Poland as a strategic gap that had to be filled for the Red Army to assist other Communist movements in Eastern Europe. By 1919, polish forces had successfully taken control the majority of Western Ukraine, having emerged victorious from the Polish-Ukrainian War. The West Ukraine People Republic led by Yavhen Petrushevych tried to create a Ukrainian state on territory claimed by the Poles, the Ukrainians, and the Russians.

With the Russian civil war turning in favour of the Bolsheviks, the Poles and Ukrainians set aside their differences to defend themselves against the advancing Red Army.

Polish Offensive Early 1920

The Red Army had initial success in early 1920, but was quickly met by swift Polish counter attacks, resulting in heavy losses on both sides. With a quick sweep, the Red Army pushed its way into the Polish capital of Warsaw, causing fear among Western nations, as the German's and Russians did not get along, and their were getting close to one another.

Russian Offensive Summer 1920

By midsummer 1920, the total fall of Warsaw seemed inevitable, but by late August,  Polish forced achieved a decisive victory and began to advance eastward until the Soviets sued for peace and the war ended in October 1920 with a ceasefire agreement.

A Formal treaty, the Peace of Riga was signed on March 18, 1921 dividing the disputed territories between Poland and Russia. Much of the territory ceded to Poland would become part of the Soviet Union following World War Two.

The war left nearly a hundred thousand dead and nearly three hundred thousand wounded. At it's peak during the Battle of Warsaw, there were nearly 1.6 million troops in combat.

To learn more about the Polish-Soviet War, please see:

White Eagle, Red Star: The Polish-Soviet War, 1919-20 (1972) by Norman Davies

Remembering History - The Polish-Soviet War 1919-1921

The Thirty Years War - An all European Conflict

CC 2.5, 2.0 and 1.0 

Throughout history there have been numerous conflicts that encompassed large portions of Europe, yet there very few that compare to the scale of warfare seen during the Thirty Years War.

The Thirty Years War was a smaller series of wars, very much like the Northern Wars (previously written about) that were fought between 1618 and 1648 mainly in Central Europe (Modern. Germany) and involved most of the European Powers of the era. The Thirty Years War is remembered as one of the longest and most destructive in European history prior to the two World Wars. It is also one of the longest continuous wars in modern history.

Pinpointing the cause of the war is highly debated among historians, and no one can truly agree on a single cause that accurately explains the cause for war. Originally it was described as a religious war between Protestantism and Catholicism in the Holy Roman Empire, yet this theory weakens when it is realised that disputes within both religions over internal politics and the balance of power played a significant part in the wars escalation over the years.  As the years went on, the war became less about religion than it did about the continuation of the Bourbon-Habsburg Rivalry to control Europe.

The Peace of Augsburg in 1555 ended the war between German Lutherans and Catholics but did not resolve the underlying religious issues, which were made worse by the spread of Calvinism throughout Germany in the following years. Calvinism became a third major religion in the region that was not recognised by Augsburg.  The Holy Roman Empire, which was already fragmented in hundreds of small city states began to rival each other over religious beliefs, leading to what is considered to be a spill into surrounding states.

Without going in into extreme details, as you can study the conflict for yourself, the warfare within the Holy Roman Empire led to the Bohemian Revolt between 1618 and 1621 and again between 1621 and 1625, followed by the Huguenot Rebellion between 1620 and 1628, all of which had the support of the Ottoman Empire.

The Ottoman support led to the Danish Intervention (1625-29), the Swedish Intervention (1630-35), and the French Intervention (1635-48).



By the time of the Peace of Westphalia, an estimated 8,000,000 people were dead, and much of Europe lay in ruins. The Habsburg supremacy was curtailed, the rise of the Bourbon Dynasty began, the Rise of the Swedish Empire began its climax. The War led to the decline of feudalism, and the decentralisation of the Holy Roman Empire, and a decline in the influence of the Catholic Church in Europe.

List of Belligerents:

The Protestant States and Allies:

Sweden

France

Bohemia

Denmark-Norway (1625-1629)  

Saxony  

United Provinces of the Netherlands

Electorate of the Palatinate  

Brunswick-Luneburg

England  

Scotland  

Brandenburg-Prussia  

Transylvania  

Zaporozhian Cossacks  

Ottoman Empire  

Hungarian Anti-Habsburg Rebels

Against

Roman Catholic States and Allies:

Holy Roman Empire  (Catholic League, Austria, Kingdom of Hungary, and Kingdom of Croatia)

Spanish Empire  (including the Spanish Netherlands)

Denmark-Norway (1643-1645)

To learn more about the Thirty Years War please see: ]

The Thirty Years War: Europe's Tragedy (2009) by Peter H. Wilson

The Thirty Years War (1982) by C.V. Wedgwood

The Thirty Years War (2002) by Stephen J. Lee  

Remembering History - the Thirty Years War, an All European Conflict with more than 8,000,000 Casualties

Soviet State Vs. Soviet State - The South Ossetia War of 2008

When the collapse of the Soviet Union occurred in December of 1991, it left several new countries to emerge from under the dust of the collapsed Iron Curtain. One of these new countries, Georgia, located on the northern side of the Black Sea became a strategic centre for the Russian Navy, as it was the key for granting access to the Mediterranean Sea to the Russian Fleet.

Almost immediately following the creation of the State of Georgia, the province, (Oblast) of South Ossetia declared its independence from Georgia, wishing to either be an independent state, or return to being part of the Russian Federation. Georgia did not recognise the independence of South Ossetia and went to war with the province for nearly a year and a half between 1991 and 1992. The war ended with a majority of the province surviving under a de-facto Russian supported government. A similar war took place with the Abkhazia Oblast throughout 1992 and 1993 which only made matters more intense.

Other than the odd skirmish, the conflict laided dormant until 2008 when separatist talks were heard from both South Ossetia and Abkhazia, and Georgia threatened military intervention should either province attempt to leave. The Russian Federation saw this as a threat to their military strategy in the Black Sea, and officially decided to defend South Ossetia and Abhazia from a potential Georgian attack.

CC 3.0 

Believing that the Russian support was a bluff, Georgia attacked on August 7-8 2008 in an attempt to regain the territory which had been under Russian military control for nearly two decades. Georgia claimed its attacks were retaliation for attacks against its peacekeepers in South Ossetia, and called for International support because Russia was deploying non Peacekeeping forces.

The Georgian assault forced the Russian peacekeepers to defend themselves with the support of the Ossetian militia. This led to the Russian Federation to view the assault as an assault on their sovereignty, and the rights of South Ossetians to cede Georgia and join Russia. Within hours of the first attacks, Russia deployed its 58th Army and its Airborne troops claiming humanitarian intervention and peace enforcement.

On August 9, Russian marines landed in Abkhazia and with the support of the local Militia opened a second front against the Georgian army. The Georgian navy was defeated in a naval skirmish earlier in the operation. Georgian forced began to retreat, and Russian forced easily occupied a number of Georgian port cities.

On August 12, a ceasefire agreement was put forward by the French president, and the European Union. Georgia signed the agreement on August 15, and Russia on August 16. Russian troops created a buffer zone around Abkhazia and South Ossetia, as well as recognising the governments of both provinces as independent nations. Recognition also came from Venezuela, Nicaragua,  and the south Pacific Island nations of Nauru, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu. Belarus was in the process of recognising South Ossetia, when it was urged to refrain for such action by the European Union.

Remembering History - The 2008 South Ossetia War, a.k.a The Russo-Georgian War

The Burning of Washington - War of 1812

Despite the fact that the Burning of Washington took place on August 24, 1814, it was part of the War of 1812, which lasted until February of 1815.

Following what many American historians consider the "Greatest disgrace ever dealt to American arms" at the hands of the British troops at the Battle of Bladensburg, the British became the only foreign power ever to capture the Washington, D.C. the capital of the United States.


The British troops, led by Major General Robert Ross occupied Washington. British commanders were ordered to only destroy public buildings. This was perhaps a ploy to gain American followers, but led to the survival of many of the cities heritage private buildings. It has also been suggested that the attack on public buildings was retaliation for the massive damage dealt to private dwellings along Lake Erie from the famous Raid on Port Dover by American troops.

The main focus of the British attack on Washington, the U.S. government buildings, including, but not limited to, The White House and the U.S. Capitol were heavily damaged.

Had it not been for the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte in April of 1814 in Europe, the British might not have won the Battle of Bladensburg, but the British were able to recruit fresh troops to the American theatre of war.

The British attack on Washington was ordered in July, and was to deter any repetition of similar outrages as the Raid on Port Dover.

Quickly after the US Marines defeat, Ross and his troops arrived in Washinton, and attempted to force a truce in the war. After being attacked from a house at the corner of Maryland Ave. and Constitution St. the troops burned the house, and began their destruction of the city, while raising the Union Flag over Washington.

The buildings housing the Senate and House of Representatives were burned almost to the ground. The Library of Congress  was destroyed. Its exterior walls were preserved thanks to the rainfall, but its interior and stocks of books were lost.  It would not be re-stocked until Thomas Jefferson sold his personal collection of more than 6,000 volumes to the U.S. government.

British troops then turned to the President's house, the White House, and began burning it, adding fuel to the flames to keep it burning as long as possible.

Library of Congress - Remains of the U.S. Capitol Building - Munger, George

Library of Congress - Remains of the Presidents House (White House) - Munger, George

The Only public building to be saved from the British flames was the U.S. Patent Office, which was saved by William Thornton, a former architect of the Capital, who gained British support to save the building.

American forces themselves would burn almost all of the famous Washington Naval Yard to the ground to prevent the capture of the port and its munitions storage. This was an early example of the scorched earth policy. Had the British been able to capture the Naval Yard intact, the War of 1812, might not have ended in return to the Status Quo situation.

After 26 hours of occupation, the British troops withdrew, and President Madison and other government officials were able to return to the city and begin rebuilding.

The Presidents House, is said to have become known as The White House, after it was white washed to hide the fire damage from the British Burning of Washington in 1814.

Remembering History - The Burning of Washington

The Northern Wars, 1554-1721

Fought between 1554 and 1721, the Northern Wars (a term used to describe the several conflicts) as an internationally agreed nomenclature for the wars has not been devised.

While there is a difference of opinion as to when the First Northern War occurred, the most common occurrence and order of the conflicts are as follows:

1. The Russo-Swedish War (1554-1557). According to Finnish Historian Arvo Kunto Viljanti is considered to be the First Northern War. It is considered to be the prelude to the Livonian War (1558-1583), arose mainly out of border skirmishes. Initially started in March of 1555, when Russia attacked Finish and Swedish territory with a force of more than 20,000. The Swedish-Finish troops then mounted a counter attack to conquer Oreshek, however using a policy similar to scorched earth, the Russians were able to withstand the attack. In 1556, Russia made an advance on Vyborg, and could have easily captured the city, but withdrew after a few days of ravaging the surrounding area. The war ended when the two sides came to a peace treaty, The Treaty of Novgorod (1557) and presented the status quo.

2. The Livonian War (1558-1583) According to German Historian Klaus Kernack is the First Northern War. The war was fought between multiple powers, and was to gain control of Old Livonia, a territory in present Estonia and Latvia. Russia faced Denmark-Norway, Sweden, Lithuania and Poland. Between 1558-78 Russia dominated the battlefield, and dissolved the Livonian Confederation, which prompted Poland and Lithuania into the conflict. Following wave of victories, Russia faced a difficult few years, between 1578-83 they were pushed back along their origina borders. Two truces ended the conflict, the Truce of Jam Zapolski between Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth humiliated the Russian Tsar, Russia surrendered all of Livonia and the city of Dorpat. The Truce of Plussa between Russia and Sweden, saw Russia relinquish most of Ingria. This truce would last until 1590.

3. The Northern Seven Years War (1562-1570) According to Polish Historians is considered the First Norther War. This conflict is also known as the Nordic Seven Year's War or the Seven Year's War in Scandinavia. It was a war between the Kingdom of Sweden and a coalition of Denmark-Norway Lubeck and the Polish-Lithuanian Union. The war was motivated by King Frederick II of Denmark at King Eric XIV of Sweden to break Denmark's dominating position in Scandinavia. Fighting continued until both armies were almost annihilated, and the war ended with the Treaty of Stettin, as a stalemate.

4. Russo-Swedish War (1590-1595) Included by myself, as I believe it follows the same political divisions as the other Northern Wars.  When the Truce of Plussa expired both Russia and Sweden went back to War to gain control of Estonia and small islands along the Gulf of Finland. The war was largely a Cold War, with only a handful of major encounters during the five years. IN 1595, Sweden agreed to sign the Treaty of Teusina, which restores all Russian territory ceded in the Truce of Plussa with the exception of Narva. Russia renounced all claims on Estonia.

5. Ingraian War (1610-1617) Included by myself, as I believe it follows the same political divisions as the other Northern Wars. It mainly tied into Russia's "Time of Troubles." It was an attempt to put a Swedish Duke on the Russian Tsarist Throne. The war ended with a massive Swedish territorial gain in the Treaty of Stolbovo, which would propel Sweden into its Age of Greatness.

6. The Russo-Polish War or Thirteen Years War (1654-1667). According to some Russian Historians, this is the First Northern War. Known in the region as the War for Ukraine was the last major conflict between Tsarist Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. While the Polish-Lithuanian forces won most of the major encounters, due to economic issues, they were not able to fight for long, and were forced to sign a lopsided truce that gave Russia significant territorial gains. This war marked the beginning of the rise of Russia as a Great Power in Eastern Europe.

7. The Second Northern War (1655-1660). According to traditional Anglo-Saxon, German, Russian, and Scandinavian Historians this is the true First Northern War. This war was fought by Sweden against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Russia, Brandenburg-Prussia, the Habsburg Monarchy, Denmark-Norway and the Dutch Republic. In 1655 Sweden invaded and occupied Western Poland-Lithuania, the Eastern half was already occupied by Russia from the Thirteen Years War. The Polish King fled to Habsburg protection. After a major setback in 1656, Russia took advantage of the weak Swedish defences and declared war on Sweden and pushed into Lithuania and Swedish Livonia. Instead of attempting to defeat the Russian's, Sweden decided to attack Denmark, but faced a crushing defeat and were now at war on three fronts. In 1658, Sweden agreed to a Truce with Russia and The Treaty of Olivia in 1660 ended the war with Poland-Lithuania, the Habsburg's and Bradenburg, and the Treaty of Copenhagen with Denmark. Following the end of hostilities, the Treaty of Cardis in 1661 would formalise the Truce with Russia.

8. The Scanian War (1675-1679) considered part of the Northern Wars because it involved all the same parties. It pitted Sweden (with French support) against
Denmark-Norway and Brandenburg. The war was caused by the Swedish involvement in the Franco-Dutch War. When the United Provinces were under attack by the French, Denmark-Norway supported the invasion of Scania. This caused Sweden to fight a two front war in addition to their ongoing separate war with the Holy Roman Empire. It was a war with no winner. The Swedish navy was destroyed at sea, the Danish army was destroyed in Scania, the Swedish army was destroyed in Northern Germany. The war ended largely because Swedish King Charles XI married Danish Princess Ulrike Eleonora. Peace was made on behalf of France through the Treaties of Fontainebleua, Lund, and Saint Germain.

9. The Great Northern War (1700-1721) - also known as the Third Northern War. It was a war successfully led by the Tsarist Russia to contest the Swedish supremacy throughout Europe.
Belligerence:
Swedish Empire
Holstein-Gottorp
Poland-Lithuania (1704-09)
Ottoman Empire (1710-14)
Cossack Hetmanate (1708-09)
Great Britain (1700, 1719-21)

Against

Tsardom of Russia
Kalmyk Khante
Denmark-Norway (1700, 1709-21)
Electorate of Saxony (1700-06, 1709-21)
Poland-Lithuania (1700-04, 1709-21)
Cossack Hetmanate (1700-08, 1709-21)
Prussia (1715-21)
Hanover (1715-21)
Great Britain (1717-19)

Just by examining the list of belligerence, there was more switching sides than any ally would enjoy in a conflict. As it was a major conflict, far more massive than the other Northern Wars, I will skip the details and explain the outcome.

With the victory, Tsarist Russia established itself as a power in Europe, and forced the decline of Sweden and Poland-Lithuania. Russia gained three Swedish dominions, Estonia, Livonia, and Ingria as well as parts of the Kexholm and Viborg regions. Prussia was awarded with Pomerania. Hanover gained the Swedish territory of Bremen-Verden. Finally Holstein-Gottorp lost the Dutch of Schelswig to Denmark.

Remembering History - the Northern Wars 1554-1721

Cold War Cooperation - Apollo-Soyuz Test Project

During what onlookers thought was the rising action of the Cold War, the United States and the Soviet Union were cooperating peacefully in orbit above the earth.

NASA and the Soviet Space command, planned an experimental meeting of two manned space crafts in space. This Apollo-Soyuz Test Project would be the first joint US-Soviet space flight, and the last flight of an Apollo spacecraft.

The Mission Crest (NASA)

On July 15 the two spacecraft were launched within three hours of each other, and met on July 17 1975. Shown to the public as a symbol of detente policy, the two superpowers were realistically marking the end of the Space Race between them that began with the launch of Sputnik in October of 1957.

More than just a friendly "Hello" in space, the mission included joint and individual scientific experiments. The US Apollo crew engineered an eclipse of the Sun to allow the Soyuz team to take pictures of the solar corona for later experiments, as well as to provide useful insight into engineering for future joint space flights. After more than 44 hours together, the shuttles  went there separate ways. The US Apollo craft remained in space for 9 days, while the Soyuz for 5 days.

This test flight provided the knowledge for the Shuttle-Mir Program and the International Space Station docking capability with supply crafts from all over the world.

The docking collar used by the Soyuz would become the main link for the Mir Space Station until its retirement, and the Space Shuttle continued to use the APAS (Androgynous Peripheral Docking System) until 1998 when they changed the docking collar to the PMA (Pressurised Mating Adaptors) system.

The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project was the last manned US spaceflight until April of 1981 with the maiden flight of the Space Shuttle. It was also the only spaceflight of US Astronaut Donald Slayton's career. Originally part of the Mercury Seven in 1959, he was grounded until 1972 for medical reasons.

The Historic International Hand-Shake (NASA)

Remembering History - The Apollo-Soyuz Test Flight.

Lady Jane Grey - The 9 day Queen of England

In today's Remembering History, we remember the Queen with the shortest reign as a British Monarch. That honor lies with Lady Jane Grey. 

Despite how complicated the lines of succession are today with regards to the British monarchy, the lines were a lot more complicated in the 1500s. Jane Grey was the daughter of the 1st Duke of Suffolk and Lady Francis Brandon. Lady Brandon was the daughter of Mary Tutor, Queen of France, which made Jane Grey and her two sisters the Great-Grandaughter of Henry VII of England.

In 1553, Jane would marry Lord Guilford Dudley, the youngest son of Edward VI chief minister, John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland. In the same year, the 15 year old Edward VI, became termanilly ill, and his council began drawing up the succession rights, as they feared England would fall back into the hands of Catholicism, if a direct line of succession wasn't established. Under the Third Succession Act 1544, Edwards two half sisters helf claim to his throne, on his death bed in 1553, Edward VI, named Jane, roughly the same age as him, she was 16, as his successor, subverting the claims of his two half-sisters.

On July 6, 1553, Edward VI died, and Jane was informed on the 9th that she was to be named Queen of England. She accepted the appointment with reluctance, as she knew Edward's will would not pass Parliament without a new Act of Succession first passing, so her claim to the throne would remain extreamly week. Jane and her husband proceeded to the Tower of London, where they would await her cornation. Jane, understanding the laws of the monarchy, refused to name her husband as King, and would issue him the title of Duke of Clarance.

The Duke of Northumberland, wanting to keep his position as Chief Minister, began to plot against the Queen in waiting. Northumberland went to Mary, the eldest of Edward VI half-sisters and began to help her build support for a claim to the throne. To his surprise, the populas supported Mary and her claim to remove the to be Queen Jane Gray from the throne.

In London, on July 9th, Northumberland proclaimed Mary I Queen of England to the great jubilee of those in attendance. Jane was imprissoned in the Tower of London, and her husband was transfered to Beauchamp Tower. They would each await their trail for High Treason. The British Parliament immediatly denounced Jane's claim to the throne as that of a usurper.

Jane was found guilty of High Treason, and for having signed a number of documents "Jane the Queen" and was to be beheaded. Her execusion was spared when word came from Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, that he wished for her to live.

Jane would continue to live for another year until the Protestant Rebellion of Thomas Wyatt, the Younger. Jane herself had nothing to do with the rebellion, her father and her two brother joined the rebellion against Queen Mary I, and Mary would punish her for her families involvement.

her husband was beheaded in public, infront of the Tower of London in February of 1554. Jane, was taken to Tower Green, within the Tower of London to be executed in a more private environment because of her Royal Status.  

According to the records, Jane's last words were the same as Jesus to Luke, "Lord, into thy hands I commend my spirit!"

Lady Jane Gray and her husband, are buried in the Chapel of St Peter ad Vincula on the north side of Tower Green.

Lady Jane Grey was Queen of England from July 10, 1553 to July 19, 1553, a total of 9 days.
She has since become viewed as a Protestant Martyr.

The Execution of Lady Jane Grey by Paul Delaroche France (1833)  (The National Gallery)

Remembering History - The 9 day Queen, Lady Jane Grey

The Centurion Tank - A Life of Long Service

When examining the military industrial complex, those who approve military spending on vehicles and weaponry should take a lesson from the Centurion Tank, as its service to the British Army lasted more than half a century.


First introduced in late 1945, as Britain's main battle tank for the post-WWII era. The design process for the tank began in 1943, with British Generals hoping the tank would see service in Europe before the end of the war. Six prototypes made it to mainland Europe, 1 month after the German surrender in May of 1945. 

It would not be long before the Centurion could prove its worth on the battlefield. In 1950 with the outbreak of the Korean War, the Centurion was shipped to the Korean peninsula to support British and UN troops in their battle against communism. When the tanks first arrived, it was sub-zero, with heavy amounts of snow on the ground. Tank crews feared that the Centurion would have difficulty navigating through snow, and freezing temperatures. Surprisingly, despite not having been greatly tested in winter conditions, the Centurion out performed all other UN tank and tracked vehicles while in Korea.

Following Korea, the British would deploy the Centurion on multiple occasions to the Middle East, including, but not limited to, The Suez Crisis of 1956, The Six Day War (1967), Yom Kippur War (1973), and The First Gulf War under Operation Desert Storm. The British army would also deploy the Centurion during the Falklands War in the 1980s before it was retired from the British Army in the mid 1990s.

India would operate a Centurion model during its Indo-Pakistan War of 1965 with great success, as well as during the Liberation of Bangladesh in 1971.

South Africa would deploy former British Centurions during the Angolan Civil War (1975)

Australia, would send the Centurion into one of the most heavily contested wars of the 2oth Century, Vietnam. At first the Australian tank crews had great difficulty navigating the jungle territory that is Vietnam, and it took a few disastrous defeats before crews learned how to protect their exposed side armour plating, as well as how to keep the mud and plant-life out of the tracks to keep the tanks moving. Once tanks crew learned how to operate the Centurion in Vietnam, it became a deadly machine on the battlefield, as it had done numerous times before.

A Few African countries still operate the original design Centurion. All Western nations that once operated it, retired their remaining Centurions in the late 1990s, and have replaced it with the Leopard Tank, a tank that may just rival the Centurion in a few decades as the longest serving tank

Remembering History - the Centurion Tank

Congo Crisis - State of Katanga

Between 1960 and 1966, the Democratic Republic of Congo was in a state of turmoil. Following the states independence from Belgium in 1960, the country ended up falling into a Civil War. In today's Remembering History Post - we remember the short lived independent State of Katanga (1960-1963).

It was today, July 11, 1960 when the State of Katanga ceded from the Democratic Republic of Congo, (DRC) in revolt of the rule of Patrice Lumumba. The newly independent state was on a collision course with the DRC and its own residents from the very beginning. The ethinc breakdown of Katanga was extremely diverse, and the northern region of Baluba did not support the separation of Katanga.

Belgium business interests, and more than 6,000 Belgian troops in the area supported the independence claim, but that would not stop the civil war.

Three days later, on July 14, under resolution 143 UN Peacekeeping troops were deployed to the state, in hopes of protecting it from the growing civil war in the DRC. Under the United Nations Operation in the Congo (UNOC) the UN would embark on one of its longest peacekeeping missions to date.

By late February 1691, mercenary warfare broke out along the Katanga boarder and within the State, making it very difficult for the UN peacekeeping force to keep the peace. As the mercenary warfare increased, the UN increased its commitment to Katanga throughout 1962, sending in thousands more troops in an attempt to keep Katanga stable.

The downfall for the State of Katanga came in December 1962, when the Katanga army, attacked a UN peacekeeping force, and shot down a UN helicopter. Katanga sent their regrets to the UN, but the UN force told Katanga that they would defend themselves until a ceasefire was observed. Small battled between the UN force and Katanga's army continued, and the largely Indian UN force continued to ignor calls from the UN in New York to stand down. By mid January 1963, with U.S. involvement, the UN withdrew its support, and Katanga would be reintegrated into the DRC.

During its less than three year existance, the State of Katanga was in a constant state of conflict, and with its inability to cooperate with UN peacekeeping troops, was its downfall.

Remembering History - The Congo Crisis and the State of Katanga

Top 3 Nuclear Power Accidents

In light of the recent debate on nuclear power generation and it's safety, due to the Fukushima Nuclear melt down last year after the Japanese tsunami, I am taking a look back at the top 3 nuclear power accidents  according to INES level ratings.


This will discuss all accidents level 6 or above according to INES. 
** Three Mile Island, has been left off the list as it is rated at a level 5 INES.

Level 6: Serious Accidents

There has only been one such event according to the INES scale.

The Kyshtym Memorial

It took place at Mayak, former Soviet Union (Mod. Russia) on September 29, 1957. Known as the Kyshtym Disaster, a faulty cooling system at the militarise nuclear waste reprocessing facility caused a steam explosion that released more than 80 tons of highly radioactive materials into the surrounding environment. The impact on the local population is not fully known.

A week after the leak, an operation to evacuate more than  10,000 people from the surrounding area took place, without giving the locals any explanation as to why. Despite reports by neighbouring states in April 1958, the Soviet Union did not fully disclose the disaster to the world until 1976. The city of Ozuorsk itself has been claimed safe for humans, but the EURT area around the reprocessing facility is still heavily contaminated.


Level 7:  Major Accidents 

There have been twi such events to date according to the INES

On April 26, 1986 a power surge during testing caused one of the reactors at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in the Soviet Socialist Republic of Ukraine into a critically stage. This lead to a powerful steam explosion and fire that damaged a significant fraction of the reactor 4 core, and the majority of the core materials were spewed into the environment. This resulted in an immediate death toll of 56, as well as an estimated 4,000 radiation induced cancer deaths since. (Official WHO estimate).


As a result of the explosion, the City of Chernobyl, with a population at the time of 15,000 was largely abandoned, and the much larger city of Pripyat, population 50,000, was completely abandoned and a permanent 30 kilometre Exclusion Zone around the reactor was established.

Despite the high levels of radioactivity, the Ukrainian government continued to operate the remaining reactors at the Chernobyl site until December 2000, when the last reactor, reactor 3, was personally shutdown by the Ukrainian President.

1-Day or 2-Day Tours of the abandoned city of Pripyat are offered, leaving from Kiev, offering  a 'safe' distance view of the reactor.

________________________________________________________________________________

On March 11, 2011, a massive earthquake and tsunami crashed into the Pacific coast of Japan. Not only did the tsunami lead to nearly 25,000 casualties (15,000+ deaths, 3,000+ missing, and 6,000+ injuries), it caused a series of equipment failures which in turn caused a nuclear meltdown at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant.



It was the largest, and worst nuclear disaster since Chernobyl in 1986.

Reactor 1 suffered a hydrogen explosion before it entered into a meltdown

Reactor 2 suffered a steam explosion, and was stabilised before it entered in to a meltdown

Reactor 3 suffered a steam explosion, and began to vent radioactive steam, but did not reach the critical point.

Reactor 4 was shutdown on March 11, and the fuel rods transfered to the spent fuel pool. On March 15, an explosion damaged the roof of Reactor 4, and the water in the pool began boiling, causing the release of more radioactive steam. . By the end of April, Japanese authorities were able confirm the fuel rods we not damaged.

Reactors 5 and 6 are still in stable condition and under constant monitoring.

The radioactive materials dispersed by Fukushima was 40% the total of Chernobyl, and the distance it was dispersed was 1/8 of that of the Chernobyl radioactive plume.


Remembering History - Top 3 Nuclear Power Accidents.

Starfish Prime - Nuclear Test July 9, 1962

In July of 1962, visitors to the Island of Honolulu, Hawaii where treated to the visual show of a lifetime. It was in July of 1962, when the U.S. decided to perform a exoatmospheric (in space) Nuclear Test, in response to the Soviet Unions decision to end a three year ban on nuclear testing.

Code named, Starfish Prime, it was to be one of five planned high altitude nuclear tests as part of Operation Fishbowl, within the larger Operation Dominic. These Operations where designed to test the viability of nuclear weapons in space. 

In 1958 the U.S. had conducted other high altitude nuclear testings, but decided that "Previous high-altitude nuclear tests: Yucca, Teak, and Orange, as well as the three Argus tests were poorly instrumented and hastily executed."  (Defence Atomic Support Agency. Project Officer's Interim Report: STARFISH Prime. Report ADA955694. August 1962 )

Before the successful Starfish Prime test, the U.S. had some minor complications with Operation Fishbowl. The first planned high altitude test, Bluegill, was on a perfect trajectory when it was lost by the radar tracking facility, and was ordered destroyed on June 2, 1962. On June 19, the second test proceeded, codenamed Starfish. The Thor rocket launched went according to plan, when the missile stopped at between 30,000 and 35,000 feet and began to break apart. The missile was ordered destroyed.

On July 9, the W49 thermonuclear warhead was loaded on to a third Thor missile, and launched and exploded at 9am (CUT) Starfish Prime was launched. It was 11pm local time (on July 8th) in Honolulu, where hotel patrons raced to the rooftops of their hotels, or the beaches. Wherever they could get a sight of the night sky over Johnston Island, despite the fact that they were a mere 1,400 km away.

At 400 kilometres above the island, the explosion caused an aurora effect on the night sky, and created an electromagnetic pulse (EMP), a pulse much larger than anticipated, and caused the measurement equipment to fail, as well as thousands of electronics on the surrounding islands, including TVs, radios, home alarms, and street lights.  The 1.4 Megaton detonation caused the immediate failure of several low orbit satellites, and within the coming days, the radiation Field would cause the malfunction of 1/3 of low orbit satellites.

 The aurora was visible for approximately ten minutes, before beginning to fade, and was silent. There was no fireball or mushroom synonymous with nuclear explosions created by the Starfish Prime test, as there was no oxygen for the weapon to ignite.

The lasting effects of the test, created a series of man made radiation belts circling the earth, causing further problems for the low orbit satellites. The radiation affected their solar panels, and electronic components.  It was estimated by Journal of Geophysical Research that these radiation belts remained for at least 5 years.

It was not all for nothing, the Thor rocket also carried a cadmium (109) tracer that helped scientists predict the seasonal mixes of polar and tropical air, as well as led to better understanding of the EMP effect of nuclear weapons.

Operation Fishbowl would see another 2 failed attempts at atmospheric tests, before finishing on a high note, with 4 successful tests.

Remembering History - Starfish Prime Nuclear Test

The little war that wasn't so little - The "Little War in Hungary"

Just like a book, you cannot judge a war by the name history has given it. This is especially true with the Little War in Hungary, taking place between 1530 and 1552.

The war was a series of conflicts between the Habsburgs and their close allies against the Ottoman Empire.

Belligerents:

• Habsburg Austria
• Holy Roman Empire
• Spain
• Papal States
• Bohemia
• Kingdom of Croatia
• Hungarian Kingdom of Ferdinand's

Against

• The Ottoman Empire
• Moldavia
• Hungarian Kingdom of Szapolyai's
• Wallachia Serbain Despotate
• France

The war is considered to have begun following the Ottoman Siege of Vienna in 1529, where Suleiman the Magnificent attempted to capture the city. The siege took place between September 27 and October 15, 1529, and left more than 15,000 dead or wounded. The Ottoman's failed to capture Vienna, and the tides turned against them, and after almost a century of unchecked conquest, the Ottoman Empire began to loose its gained territory.  It marked the maximum extent of the Ottoman Empire's control and expansion in Central Europe.

Wood Engraving of the clash between the Austrians and Ottoman's outside of Vienna in 1529 (PD-OLD)

Following the failed siege, Austria launched a counter attack against the Ottoman in 1530, not an easy feat when facing an defending army of 120,000. Ferdinand of Austria would in the end be successful in capturing the fort at Esztergom along the Danube River, which as a geographical strategic point.

The Austrian success in Hungary frustrated Suleiman to the point that he would attempt to conquer Vienna again in 1532, with an attacking army of approximately 150,000. Ferdinand, realising how massive Suleiman's force was, withdrew his army from the boarder city of Koszeg, and left fewer than 700 men to defend the city, without any canons. The Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire, Ibrahim Pasha, did not understand how poorly defended the city of Koszeg was, and placed the city under siege for more than four weeks. With the arrival of the August rains, the Ottoman army withdrew and returned home.

Despite the second failed attempt at capturing Vienna, the Ottoman's and Austrians signed a peace treaty, which recognised the Kingdom of Hungary as an Ottoman vassal, as long as the Ottoman's respected the regions of Hungary that had recognised Habsburg rule.

This peace deal did not end the war between the two rivals. The war would turn bloody again at the Siege of Osijek (1537), where Ferdinand and his massive Austrian army, which was well trained and equipped thanks to the success of his defending force at Koszeg, planned a massive blow to the Ottoman strong hold of Osijek. This attack would directly violate the treaty. At the Battle of Dakovo, the Austrian attempt would be futile, and faced a crushing defeat, leaving more than 25,000 Austrians dead or wounded and minimal loses to the Ottoman defencive force. Less than a year later at the Battle of Preveza, in 1538, the Ottoman army would again crush the Habsburg led coalition.

Looking to make up for the humiliating defeats of the previous two years, the Austrians would attempt to capture Buda in 1541. The Habsburg's luck was still no where to be found. After the humiliating defeat at the Siege of Buda, the Hungarian King (Disputed) John Szapolyai  died in 1540, and an appeal by his widdow to end the war went unanswered.

By 1543, it was clear the Ottoman Empire would win this war. Their alliance with France was stronger than ever, and France even agreed to aid the Ottoman army during the Campaign of Suleiman in 1543, supplying troops,  and artillery units. These played a direct role in the success of the Ottomans at the Siege of Esztergom and the capture of Hungarian cities Szekesfehervar, Siklos, and Szged, and the protection of another Austrian attack on the city of Buda.

The Siege of Esztergom in 1595 (Bridgeman Art Library / Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, France / Archives Charmet)

At the end of 1543, the Ottoman's and Austrians came to another peace agreement, which would last until 1552 when Suleiman decided he required the city of Eger to be within the limits of the Ottoman Empire. It was a humiliating defeat, where a professional army was defeated by the citizens of Eger withstanding the annexation.

While other conflicts between the Ottoman Empire, Austria, and Hungary would arise, this ended the Little War in Hungary. Especially as this was just one of the many Ottoman-Habsburg Wars

For more information on this subject, please read:

• The Ottoman Empire 1326-1699 by Stephen R. Turnbull (2003)
• The Enemy at the Gate: Habsburg, Ottomans, and the Battle for Europe by Andre Wheatcroft (2010)
• Plus all the other great books on Ottoman and Austrian history

Remembering History - The Little War in Hungary 1530-1552

The "Seven Years War" as the First World War

After being approached by a student to help study for the AP  (Advanced Placement) exam, I was set on a study course reviewing the "Seven Years War" and realised, that it was truly the First World War. I state this, in no way meaning any disrespect for the Great War, now commonly known as the First World War, but in a revisionist way to prove that the "Seven Years War" was a world war.

 The Defeat of the French Fireships attacking the British Fleet at Anchor before Quebec, 28 June 1759 The Canadian War Museum  

Militarily speaking, the Seven Years War was truly a World War. Just look at the basics of the conflict. It took part between 1756 and 1763, and included almost every great power of the time, and battles raged in Europe, North America, Central America, West Africa, India and in the Philippines. Just the geographic locations of the Seven Years, by definition make the conflict a World War.

If you have never heard of the Seven Years War, it may be because historiography in every country involved has given the conflict a number of alternative names based on the theatres of combat.

• Known as the French-Indian War (1754-63) in North America (France, Britain, and the Iroquois)
• Known as the Pomeranian War (1757-63) in Sweden and Prussia
• Known as the Third Carnatic War (1757-63) on the Indian subcontinent
• Known as the Third Selesian War (1756-63) in Prussia (yes, they have two names for one war) and Austria.
• Known as the Spanish-Portuguese War (1761-63) in Spain and Portugal
• Known as the Anglo-Spanish War (1761-63) in Britain, in their war against Spain.
• and; known as the War of the Conquest (1754-63) in French Canada (Quebec)

If you are scratching your head because the math does not work out, 1754 to 1763 is 9 years, and not 7, your math is correct. The name, The Seven Years War was selected because The Nine Years War was already taken for a war between Louis XIV of France and a European Coalition (1688-1697).

The war began with the divide between Great Britain (The Hanover's) and France and Spain (The Bourbons), as well as the divide between the Prissian's (The Hozenzollerns) and Austria (The Habsburgs). These divides, as well as numerous alliance systems would divide the world and their colonies against each other.

First Alliance:

• Kingdom of Prussia
• Kingdom of Great Britain
• Electorate of Hanover
• Brunswick-Wolfenbuttle
• Iroquois Confederacy
• Kingdom of Portugal
• Landgraviate of Hesse-Kessel
• and; Schaumburg-Lippe

Second Alliance:

• Kingdom of France
• Habsburg Monarchy
• Russian Empire
• Kingdom of Spain
• Kingdom of Sweden
• Electorate of Saxony
• Mughal Empire

A Map of the Alliance System during the Seven Years War (CC BY 3.0)

Without going into great detail on the War, because you can read a book on that, my intent is just to showcase the global affects of the Seven Years War, thus proving that it was technically the First World War.

UPDATE: There are some that believe that The Seven Years War cannot be considered a World War because it did not include what has become known as "Total War" where the entire societal apparatus is used to further the war effort. I disagree that this is a requirement for a World War. When I use the term, World War, I am discussion geographic combat, and in that sense, the Seven Years War, was a World War.
The War ended with four treaties:

1. The Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1762) - Which ended the Seven Years War between Prussia and Russia. It was a mutual agreement in the simplest terms to end the war with each other, so they could better fight their other enemies.
2. The Treaty of Paris (1763) - Which ended the Seven Years war for Great Britain, Prussia, Portugal and their allies against France, Spain, Austria, Russia and their allies.
3. The Treaty of Hubertusburg (1763) - Which ended the Seven Years war between Prussia, Austria, and Saxony. It was a side treaty of the Treaty of Paris (1763).
4. The Treaty of Hamburg (1762) - Which ended the Seven Years War between Sweden and Prussia.

The war ended as most do, with territorial changes around the world. Much of Europe returned to its pre-war boundaries and conditions. It was the colonies that could change hands between Britain, France and Spain.

• Great Britain would annexes (what would be) Canada (Then New France), Begal and Florida.
• France would transfer Louisiana to Spain.

For more information on the Seven Years War, please read any of the following:

• Northern Armageddon: The Battle of the Plains of Abraham by D. Peter MacLeod (2008)
• The Seven Years War in Europe: 1756-1763 by Franz A.J. Szabo (2000)
• Crucible of War: The Seven Years War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754-1766 by Fred Anderson (2001)
• The Global Seven Years War 1754-1763: Britain and France in a Great Power Contest by D.A. Baugh (2011)
• Plus the many more great history books

The Seven Years War - Remembering History